For some time, I have reflected on why specific individuals fail to understand, accept, or deny science while others subscribe to conspiracy theories or propagate misinformation. Such misinformation can lead to harmful consequences across a broad spectrum, including climate change, biodiversity, resilience, medicine, vaccinations, engineering, construction, architecture, and countless other disciplines. It also impacts the institutions and organizations established to advance our understanding and promote planet and human health and well-being.

This concern has been echoed by the President of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and explored in initiatives such as the National Academies’ webinar and report on “Understanding and Addressing Misinformation about Science.” Emerging technologies like Artificial Intelligence (AI) hold the potential to enhance human and planetary health but also present risks, as misinformation fueled by AI – particularly when it lacks attribution, repeatability, or transparency – can exacerbate harmful outcomes.

The aim of this article is to clarify what science is and what it is not. 

What science is

While this is not an exhaustive examination, it underscores the foundational principles of science as a human endeavor. Science is rooted in evidence, expert review, and rigorous, continuous analysis and testing to advance our collective knowledge of the natural and human world.

Science has traditionally been categorized into four primary domains:

• Natural sciences: biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and earth sciences, which focus on understanding the natural world

• Formal sciences: mathematics, logic, and theoretical computer science, which deal with abstract concepts

• Social sciences: disciplines like economics, history, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and archaeology that examine human behavior and societies

• Applied sciences: fields that apply scientific principles, including engineering, medicine, architecture, and construction

These categories are interdependent, frequently intersecting in both intended and unintended ways to shape our understanding of the planet and human existence.

What science is not

• Science is not static. It evolves as new evidence emerges

• Science is not opinion. While interpretations of evidence may vary, science is based on objective analysis and not public opinion, political agendas, or unsupported claims via oligarchs, autocrats, and others

• Science is not free from bias. However, it employs systematic processes – such as peer review, repeatability, and transparency – to mitigate and reduce bias

Some key aspects of science

1. Objectivity
   Objectivity is foundational to scientific inquiry. While humans bring biases, science employs rigorous methodologies – including transparency, repeatability, and peer review – to minimize them. Trust, both within the scientific community and among the public, hinges on these processes

2. Evidence
   Scientific conclusions are derived from data obtained through observation, experimentation, and analysis. Evidence must be reproducible and independently verified to gain broad scientific acceptance

3. Hypothesis and theory
   A hypothesis is a tentative assumption or proposal designed to be tested through experimentation. A theory, in contrast, is a well-substantiated explanation supported by extensive data and evidence, such as the Continental Drift Theory or the Big Bang Theory. Theories reflect a higher degree of certainty than hypothese
   

4. Scientific method
   In the scientific method, hypotheses are formulated before research begins (following a background review), ensuring objectivity and structure throughout the process. There is the generally accepted scientific method and, more recently, a more sophisticated scientific method
   

5. Transparency, repeatability, attribution, and public trust
   These principles serve as the cornerstones of science and have been described as “scientific norms.” Public trust, which is essential, emerges from adherence to these norms:

• Transparency in methods and materials

• Repeatable results across studies

• Proper attribution of prior research

Emerging challenges, such as misinformation and AI misuse, can undermine these norms.

6. Peer review
   Peer reviews are conducted by experts with specialized knowledge of the subject matter. In some contexts – such as more systems thinking – broader, interdisciplinary reviews offer value by fostering holistic approaches

7. Weight of evidence
   The “weight of evidence” approach evaluates the quality, consistency, and reliability of all available data to determine its support for a hypothesis. This method prioritizes critical analysis rather than simply counting supporting or opposing studies

8. Preponderance of evidence
   In science, conclusions are not determined by the “preponderance of evidence” as understood in legal contexts (where >50% likelihood often suffices). Instead, science demands higher standards of certainty, relying on robust statistical methods, replication, and continuous scrutiny to minimize errors. In fields such as environmental science and public health, where decisions must often be made based on incomplete data, a preponderance of evidence may guide policy to address risks. For instance, smoking-related health policies and climate change mitigation efforts reflect this principle by acting on probable risks supported by cumulative evidence

Conclusion

In summary, science is a systematic, evidence-based approach to understanding the world. It evaluates evidence critically, employs rigorous methodologies to reduce bias, and strives for the highest level of certainty. While the processes of science are not infallible, they are designed to substantiate, refute, or advance knowledge. Supporting and understanding science is essential for advancing planet and human health and well-being, informing sound policies, and fostering trust.

Emerging challenges – such as misinformation and the misuse of technologies like AI – underscore the need for transparency, repeatability, and public engagement. By adhering to these principles, science can continue to serve its critical role in improving lives and addressing global challenges.

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