Hybrid energy hubs for cocoa-farming camps in Côte d’Ivoire

1. Background

Côte d’Ivoire remains the world’s largest cocoa producer, with cocoa farming and exports forming a backbone of rural livelihoods and national income (over 5 million people depend on cocoa farmers).¹ Yet long-term sectoral stability is increasingly undermined by a convergence of agronomic, climatic, regulatory, and infrastructural pressures. These constraints are most acute in informal cocoa-farming camps outside formal planning and electrification programs, where energy exclusion directly limits productivity, quality control, and compliance with market regulations.

1.1 Agronomic and climatic stressors: Gradual decline in cocoa productivity

Over the past decades, cocoa cultivation in Côte d’Ivoire has expanded geographically, yet yield and productivity gains have not kept pace. On many smallholder farms (average size ~4.9 ha), the average yield remains low (≈ 435 kg/ha) and cocoa trees are aging (on average ~24 years old), frequently beyond their optimal productive age.² These older plantations are more susceptible to pests and diseases, notably the Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus (CSSV) and other fungal or insect pressures, which have been persistently reported across cocoa-growing areas.³ In affected zones, CSSV and related diseases can cause substantial yield reductions, and in extreme cases tree death, undermining both current productivity and long-term farm viability. These stresses tend to aggravate structural problems (old trees + low soil fertility), limiting the input-based response effectiveness (e.g., fertilizer, pesticides). 

1.2 External regulatory pressures: Electrification as a market-access condition

Global demand for cocoa is increasingly shaped not only by volume but by sustainability, traceability, and compliance requirements. In particular, regulatory frameworks such as the EU Deforestation‑Free Regulation (EUDR) and buyer-driven standards require geographic traceability and proof of “deforestation-free” origin for cocoa at the plot level. This evolution transforms energy access from a welfare or development issue into a market-access infrastructure prerequisite: without reliable electricity at farm sites or collection points, farmers and cooperatives may be unable to power devices for data capture (e.g., smartphones, GPS units, barcode or QR-code scanners), or run basic post-harvest processing or cold-storage facilities. 

1.3 Rural energy exclusion: A structural gap for cocoa farming communities

Reported electrification coverage in Côte d’Ivoire (~95% for recognized settlements) masks a persistent last-mile gap affecting informal cocoa-farming camps: seasonal or semi-permanent settlements where farmers and migrant labour reside during production cycles.⁴ Largely absent from national grid planning, census frames, and rural electrification programs, these camps remain structurally excluded from reliable energy access.⁵ Market and satellite-based evidence suggests that tens of thousands of such camps exist nationwide, and that their scale is likely underestimated in official statistics.⁶ As a result, households and cooperatives rely on diesel generators for processing and water pumping, kerosene for lighting, and pay-per-use charging services for phones and traceability devices — practices elevate production costs, contribute to inconsistent fermentation and drying, constrain digital data collection required for traceability, and generate avoidable greenhouse-gas emissions.⁷ 

1.4 Carbon finance lever: A strategic opportunity for inclusive electrification

The Government of Côte d’Ivoire has initiated carbon finance engagement and has received USD 50 million in results‑based finance under the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), including USD 35 million in 2024 and a second tranche of USD 15 million in 2025 for verified reductions of ~10 million tCO₂e in total.⁸ This demonstrates that carbon payments can be effectively monetized and channelled to communities. Informal cocoa-farming camps, off-grid, agriculturally significant, and largely excluded from national electrification programs, represent a tangible opportunity to deploy these revenues for rural energy services. Investments in these camps can displace diesel and kerosene, improve post-harvest handling, strengthen livelihoods, create green jobs, and support traceability compliance, while establishing replicable monitoring, reporting, and governance frameworks. Linking carbon finance to energy access thus offers a data-backed pathway to scale interventions nationally, advancing both climate and rural development objectives.

Source: International Cocoa Organization. (August 2023). Feasibility Studies on Cocoa Exchange.
Note: Darker color suggests higher cocoa production.

2. Project description

The pilot offers a community-anchored off-grid energy solution to address structural challenges in informal cocoa-farming camps. It aims to improve post-harvest handling, traceability, household welfare, and reduce emissions. It consists of three components: (A) a hybrid solar–biomass hub providing reliable power; (B) household-level PAYGO solar systems reducing kerosene use; and (C) a light MRV system with a carbon-revenue mechanism sustaining operations and governance.

2.1 Objective

The objective is to demonstrate a scalable model for delivering affordable, reliable, and low-carbon energy services to an informal cocoa-farming camp in a manner that strengthens productive capacity, supports compliance with traceability requirements, and generates verifiable emission reductions that partially fund operations. This objective integrates productive, livelihood, and financial transformations by improving post-harvest control and traceability, expanding affordable household energy access, and using conservative carbon revenues to partially fund O&M costs.

Targeting an informal camp of 150~250 households and its cooperative collection point, the pilot will produce high-quality operational evidence within an 18-month cycle (design, procurement, construction, commissioning, monitoring, and first verification). This evidence package will be intentionally formatted to inform rapid replication decisions (technical specifications, tariff templates, MRV protocol, and a governance playbook) for clusters of similar camps across cocoa landscapes.

2.1 Hybrid solar–biomass energy hub (30~80 kW)

Component A provides the technical backbone of the pilot. Its purpose is to replace fragmented, high-cost diesel, kerosene, and pay-per-use energy with reliable, low-carbon productive power. The hybrid architecture directly responds to three recurring constraints identified in Section 1: (i) intermittency of solar-only systems;  (ii) the seasonality of cocoa production; and (iii) the need for dispatchable power to stabilize fermentation and drying processes.

Design logic: The hub combines a solar PV array (20~40 kW), a battery energy storage system (BESS) for evening and low-load periods, and a small-scale cocoa -husk anaerobic digester producing biogas that feeds a simple generator (10~40 kW). This configuration allows solar to serve as the primary energy source, while the biomass unit provides reliability during cloudy periods and nighttime productive activities. In contrast to diesel-backup systems, the digester is fed by an agricultural residue that is currently underutilized or burnt. This turns a waste stream into a reliable energy input and anchors the system within the agricultural cycle.

Functional scope: Unlike many mini-grid pilots that only power lighting and small appliances, this hub is explicitly oriented towards post-harvest and market-access functions, reflecting cocoa-sector needs.

• Controlled fermentation and drying (stable heat, humidity management, power for small fans or monitoring equipment).

• A 5~10 m³ mini cold room for temporary storage of food and fermentation batches, and for vaccines if a clinic is nearby.

• Power for small agro-processing equipment (e.g., hammer mill or grinder).

• Water pumping for processing, domestic use or small irrigation.

• Lighting and charging infrastructure for cooperative staff handling traceability devices.

2.2 Solar home systems via PAYGO (150~250 kits)

Component B extends the benefits of electrification to households through small, modular, and financially accessible SHS kits, complementing the energy hub without overloading it. Household access is essential for three reasons: (i) it increases social acceptance of the hub, which otherwise risks being perceived as cooperative-centric; (ii) it displaces kerosene, a high-emission and high-cost fuel; and (iii) it creates a broad base of measurable emission reductions feeding into carbon revenue streams.

Design logic: Each household receives a 20~50 W SHS capable of supporting 2~3 LED lights, phone charging, and potentially a small radio or fan. The PAYGO model, delivered through Orange/MoMo or MTN Mobile Money, removes the barrier of upfront cost and allows repayment to be adjusted to the seasonality of cocoa income. The kits are also intentionally simple.

Youth-led maintenance model: A cohort of 10~15 local youth will be trained as certified installers and basic technicians. This approach:

• Builds local employment,

• Ensures rapid first-line maintenance,

• Reduces reliance on external technicians, and

• Increases system uptime.

Rationale and transformative potential: SHS units yield measurable improvements in household welfare:

• reduced kerosene expenditures (typically 10~15% of household cash spending),

• reduced indoor air pollution,

• longer evening study hours for children,

• increased safety (especially for women during evening hours), and 

• reduced need to travel for phone charging.

From a carbon-finance lens, SHS units generate a clean and easily verified emissions-reduction stream, critical for sustaining O&M costs. Even conservative displacement assumptions produce significant tCO₂e/household/year that aggregate across 150~250 households.

2.3 Light MRV and community carbon revenue scheme

Component C is the financial engine that allows the pilot to remain operational after donor support fades. It also provides the governance structures needed to ensure that communities trust the system and that carbon revenues are used transparently.

Purpose: Informal cocoa camps lack formal governance, reliable records, and predictable income streams, which has undermined the sustainability of past mini-grid and SHS programs. Component C addresses these constraints by generating low-cost, high-integrity emissions data from diesel and kerosene displacement, converting them into verifiable carbon revenues, and channeling these revenues into a transparent, community-governed fund. The MRV outputs also serve as standardized templates for replication and support future integration into Côte d’Ivoire’s national carbon registry and Article 6 framework.

MRV architecture: The system relies on a limited set of robust indicators suitable for informal settlements. Baselines are established through surveys of kerosene and diesel use, cross-validated with local shop records and generator-use diaries. Smart meters track hub generation and consumption, while SHS telemetry or PAYGO payment histories proxy household usage. Periodic surveys help detect rebound effects or leakage. Verification follows a conservative approach, including annual third-party verification and alignment with national carbon accounting systems, minimizing administrative burden and credibility risks.

Community carbon fund: All revenues flow into a Community Carbon Fund governed by the Camp Energy Committee (CEC). Indicative allocations include subsidies for PAYGO fees, system maintenance and technician stipends, and financing community priorities such as school lighting or clinic refrigeration. Safeguards against elite capture include public disclosure of revenues and expenditures, rotation of CEC officers with gender-balanced representation, and external financial review aligned with carbon verification. This structure links carbon finance directly to visible community benefits, reinforcing trust and willingness to pay.

Source: Author

3. Implementation model

The pilot adopts a “national stewardship, professional delivery, local accountability” model. This structure is designed to balance policy credibility, operational efficiency, and local legitimacy — three conditions that are often missing in last-mile electrification initiatives targeting informal settlements. National institutions retain strategic oversight of carbon governance and policy alignment, while technical delivery and day-to-day operations are delegated to specialized private operators through performance-based contracts. Local accountability and benefit-sharing are ensured through a democratically constituted CEC, which anchors the project within existing social structures of the cocoa camp.

3.1 National-level oversight: Strategic direction and carbon governance

At the national level, the project is embedded within Côte d’Ivoire’s evolving climate-finance and carbon-market architecture. Relevant public authorities provide strategic direction rather than operational control, ensuring that the pilot aligns with national priorities while remaining flexible enough to operate in informal settings.

National stewardship focuses on three core functions:

• Carbon governance and integrity, including alignment with national MRV frameworks, safeguards, and registry systems;

• Policy coherence, ensuring consistency with Côte d’Ivoire’s NDC, REDD+ strategy, and emerging Article 6 engagement;

• Institutional learning, using the pilot to generate standardized templates (technical, financial, and MRV) that can inform scale-up decisions.

By limiting public-sector involvement to these strategic functions, the model avoids bureaucratic bottlenecks while preserving the credibility required for carbon finance and international reporting.

3.2 Professional delivery: Technical implementation and operations

Technical implementation is entrusted to specialist private operators selected through competitive procurement. These partners are responsible for engineering, construction, commissioning, and initial operations and maintenance of both the hybrid energy hub and associated household systems.

Professional delivery partners perform four essential roles:

• Engineering and system reliability, ensuring that hybrid solar-biomass configurations meet safety and performance standards;

• Operational management, including load balancing, tariff application, and preventive maintenance;

• Capacity transfer, through structured training of local youth technicians for first-line maintenance;

• Data provision, supplying operational and metering data required for MRV and performance monitoring.

Household-level PAYGO solar services are delivered through experienced SHS providers with established digital payment platforms and logistics networks. Seasonal repayment schedules are adapted to cocoa income cycles, reducing default risk and improving affordability.

This professionalized delivery structure ensures service continuity while insulating communities from technical complexity and financial exposure.

3.3 Community accountability: Governance and benefit-sharing

Local legitimacy and sustainability are secured through a Camp Energy Committee (CEC), a locally elected body representing cooperative leaders, women, youth, and migrant workers. The CEC serves as the primary interface between the community, service providers, and national stakeholders.

Key responsibilities of the CEC include:

• Oversight of tariffs and service quality, ensuring that pricing and access remain transparent and equitable;

• Social monitoring of operations, including SHS allocation and grievance resolution;

• Management of carbon-linked community revenues, in line with agreed rules and disclosure requirements;

• Documentation of decisions and meetings, supporting safeguards compliance and MRV audits.

A cohort of trained local youth technicians complements the CEC by providing rapid first-line maintenance for SHS units and routine checks on hub infrastructure. Their involvement reduces downtime, builds local skills, and strengthens community ownership of the energy system.

4. Conclusion

This pilot proposes a pragmatic pathway to close Côte d’Ivoire’s rural energy last-mile gap by targeting informal cocoa-farming camps that are structurally excluded from conventional electrification programs. By combining hybrid off-grid energy infrastructure, household-level PAYGO solar access, and a light but credible carbon-finance and governance framework, the model aligns energy access with productivity, market compliance, and climate objectives. Crucially, it is designed not as a one-off intervention but as a learning-oriented pilot: generating operational, financial, and institutional evidence that can inform national scale-up. If successful, the approach offers a replicable template for integrating carbon finance into inclusive rural electrification, supporting both cocoa sector resilience and Côte d’Ivoire’s broader climate and development ambitions.

illuminem Voices is a democratic space presenting the thoughts and opinions of leading Sustainability & Energy writers, their opinions do not necessarily represent those of illuminem.

Track the real‑world impact behind the sustainability headlines. illuminem’s Data Hub™ offers transparent performance data and climate targets of companies driving the transition.

References

1. Agence Française de Développement. (December 1, 2016). Cocoa farmers’ Agricultural practices and livelihoods in Côte d’Ivoire. https://www.afd.fr/en/ressources/cocoa-farmers-agricultural-practices-and-livelihoods-cote-divoir.

2. GOGLA. (November 2024). Côte d’Ivoire country brief. https://www.gogla.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Cote-dIvoire-Country-Brief.pdf.

3. Kouadio, Y. M., et al. (November 2024). Traditional agroforestry practices and cocoa productivity in Côte d’Ivoire. Sustainability, 16(22), 9927. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16229927.

4. GOGLA. (November 2024). Côte d’Ivoire country brief. https://www.gogla.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Côte-dIvoire-Country-Brief.pdf.

5. Lumos Global. (February 20, 2025). Powering Côte d’Ivoire’s camps after the cocoa harvest. https://www.lumos-global.com/post/powering-c%C3%B4te-d-ivoire-s-camps-after-the-cocoa-harvest.

6. Kalischek, N. et al. (2022). Satellite-based high-resolution maps of cocoa planted area for Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, arXiv preprint, arXiv:2206.06119.

7. GOGLA. (November 2024) and Lumos Global. (February 20, 2025).

8. World Bank Group. (June 14, 2024). Côte d'Ivoire Receives $35 million Payment for Verified Reduction of Carbon Emissions. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2024/06/14/cote-ivoire-receives-35-million -payment-for-verified-reduction-of-carbon-emissions.