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To better achieve environmental goals, a growing number of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are being retrofitted from the conventional activated sludge (CAS) process to the membrane bioreactor (MBR) process due to MBR's small footprint and high effluent quality. However, retrofitting from CAS to MBR has been controversial due to the high energy consumption and membrane fouling in MBR applications. It is essential to clarify this issue by comparing the techno-economy of CAS with that of MBR.